A brief history of domestic electricity use, focussing on the factors behind the development of some of the very different mains plugs found around the world.

Twelve Types of Mains Plug

It can be frustrating travelling abroad and realising that you have to purchase a mains adaptor to use your electrical devices, just as it is when you buy some new hardware online and find it is equipped with power cabling for an entirely different continent.

There are 12 different types of mains plug used around the world, some with their origins in the last days of the British Empire, while others herald from more recent times and continually failing attempts to standardize the connector.

Why Are There Many Types of Electric Plug?

The early days of electricity saw a period of development and expansion that saw the first electricity  networks built and introduced into homes and offices for the first time. Simultaneously across North America and Europe, different companies were hardwiring properties into what would become national grids, and in turn electrical devices were wired directly into these supplies.

As the problems surrounding this method become clear, innovators around the world independently devised different methods to plug and unplug electrical items from the mains. These new plugs were then adopted by local and national electricity companies, with complete disregard for similar efforts taking place abroad.

Running parallel to this was the establishment of different methods of generating electrical power supplies – this also affected the design of the resulting plugs as well as the design of the networks and electrical devices.

Some Typical Power Supply Plugs

In the United Kingdom, a bulky three pin mains plug is found on the majority of devices. This plug was designed and introduced during World War II to take advantage of a lack of copper. As the majority of resources were being directed into the war effort, this plug was equipped with a short copper fuse, thus removing a key element of a domestic electrical supply and effectively placing it within the device.

This is in contrast to the earlier rounded three pin plug used throughout the UK and the British Empire before this – and as a result of the subsequent breakup of that empire following World War II large portions of Asia and Africa still use the original three pin.

Curiously this use of three pin plugs in the UK was in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe and even North America where two pin devices where very much in vogue – but even then, there is a considerable difference in design, and this is purely down to the lack of communications available during the early days of electricity. Given that modern communication is largely facilitated by electricity this is hardly a surprise.

source: http://www.brighthub.com/computing/hardware/articles/59886.aspx

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Differences in voltage and current standards between North America and Europe the focus of this explaination which reveals the circumstances behind the development of Nikola Tesla’s Alternating Current as an alternative to Thomas Edison’s Direct Current.

Thomas Edison and Direct Current

While you might be familiar with your own electrical devices and their requirements, you not might be aware that electrical goods bought in other countries are designed to run on a different voltage.

Electric travel shavers often have a switch to change between 110V and 240V (in conjunction with a mains adaptor), and this difference in voltage harks back to the very early days of mass production and distribution of electricity.

Thomas Edison – inventor of the modern lightbulb – developed the DC (direct current) standard for distributing electricity which produced 110V. Edison’s General Electric company became one of the main suppliers of electricity across the United States, but it soon became clear that the DC system was unsuitable for sending electricity across large power grids.

Nikola Tesla’s Alternating Current

The DC standard was eventually superseded in North America by Nikola Tesla’s AC system – this was a three-phase method which used three alternating currents which were slightly out of phase. Tesla knew that the most efficient frequency for the alternating current was 60Hz, and when combined, variations in the voltage were lost. This system enabled electricity to be distributed over greater distances than DC.

At first utilizing 240V, Tesla eventually compromised to reduce this to 110V in order to maintain the safety of devices designed to use the lower voltage.

Ever since, North America has used devices requiring 110V – however properties are now supplied with 220V, with a handful of appliances (stove, clothes dryer) running on this voltage and everything else on 110V.

A Worldwide Revolution

It was a slightly different story in Europe and the United Kingdom – German power company AEG established a major grip on electrical generation across the continent, while electric companies in the UK mostly matched the AEG standard of 110V AC at 60Hz. This continued until World War II where all across Europe a 220V alternating current at 50Hz was adopted.

In the UK this required an Act of Parliament to nationalise (purchase by the State) the many local electricity companies, and the subsequent standardization of current, voltage and frequency has enabled European companies to buy and sell electricity supplies depending upon demand.

The work of both men considerably changed the way mankind behaves and carries out tasks, and the story of Europe’s adoption of these standards is echoed worldwide.

source: http://www.brighthub.com/computing/hardware/articles/60041.aspx

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What is the BIOS?:

The Basic Input Output System, abbreviated as BIOS, is software stored on a small memory chip on the motherboard.

BIOS is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the Basic Integrated Operating System.

What is the BIOS Used For?:

BIOS instructs the computer on how to perform a number of basic functions such as booting and keyboard control.

BIOS is also used to identify and configure the hardware in a computer such as the hard drive, floppy drive, optical drive, CPU, memory, etc.

How is BIOS Accessed?:

The BIOS is accessed and configured through the BIOS Setup Utility. The BIOS Setup Utility is, for all reasonable purposes, the BIOS itself. All available options in BIOS are configurable via the BIOS Setup Utility.

How is BIOS Used?:

BIOS contains a number of hardware configuration options that can be changed through the setup utility. Saving these changes and restarting the computer applies the changes to the BIOS and alters the way BIOS instructs the hardware to function.

BIOS Availability:

All modern computer motherboards contain BIOS software.

BIOS access and configuration on PC systems is independent of any operating system because the BIOS is part of the motherboard hardware. It doesn’t matter if a PC is running Windows XP, Windows Vista, Linux, Unix, or no operating system at all – BIOS functions outside of the operating system environment and is no way dependent upon it.

source: http://www.reuters.com/article

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Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric key cipher technique used to secure and encrypt operating systems, hard drives, networking systems, files, e-mails, and other similar data. In cryptography, AES consist of three block ciphers taken from a larger collection published originally as Rijndael. Each cipher has a 128-bit block size with three different key sizes of 128, 192, and 256 bits.

The AES cipher does a number of transformation rounds repetitiously, which converts the input plain text into an output of cipher text. There are several processing steps for each round with one round that relies exclusively on the encryption key. Then, a set of reverse rounds are applied to convert the cipher text back into plain text. The AES encryption only uses one 128-bit key to encrypt and decrypt data.

In the United States (US), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) made a request for encryption algorithms for the AES standard. Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen worked together to create the Rijndael cipher. They submitted their cipher to the AES selection process from which Rijndael was selected.

The US government accepted the AES encryption standard and implemented it into its systems to help secure classified and non-classified information. In November 2001, AES was chosen by NIST as the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS), also known as FIPS197. In July 2003, the National Security Agency (NSA) stated that AES was secure enough to protect its information at the secret and top-secret levels.

AES encryption is used around the world to secure some of the most protected systems for both governmental groups and business. AES encryption is even used by individuals to protect private computers and networking systems. It is now the standard set by the US government and individuals worldwide.

One of the reasons why AES encryption works so well is that it works on multiple network layers at the same time. Although AES and Rijndael are used interchangeably, there are some differences that should be noted. While AES uses a fixed 128-bit block cipher and three key sizes of 128, 192 and 256 bits, Rijndael can be used with any size block cipher and key in multiples of 32-bits. Rijndael ranges from 128-bit to 256 bits for its key and block cipher sizes.

While AES encryption is not unbreakable, it is generally considered highly secure. Until 2009, it was believed that only a side-channel attack could get through an AES-protected system. In 2009, related key attacks and known-key distinguishing attacks were reported. Some of the attacks on AES systems are difficult to complete; for example, attacks typically require a user to be on the same system as the AES encryption software to break the cipher.

source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-aes-encryption.htm

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Random Access Memory (RAM), or memory, is the term used to identify internal data storage areas in a computer. Data is stored on memory chips either in internal storage chambers inside a computer or on external devices, such as hard disks or data sticks. A memory error results when something either goes wrong with the memory chip itself or something disrupts the interpretation of the data held on the chip.

Memory is made up of bits that have a value of either zero or one. The digital system in the computer knows how to interpret the values and turn them into information that is readable to people. When there is an error with the values, the computer either recovers the value internally, correcting the issue, or reads it wrong, which results in an error. The error can take the form of an error message or a malfunction of the computer.

All electronic storage devices have the potential to have memory errors. If something happens internally to change the information from the form that was used when the data was initially stored in the memory, an error can occur. For example if a computer is exposed to too much radioactivity, dust, or dirt, the internal systems can be corrupted, which in turn causes errors.

A memory error can come in different forms. A repeatable or hard error is an error that tells the computer user that a piece of hardware is broken, causing the computer difficulty in reading the data. Loose internal chips, motherboard defects, or loose memory modules are common causes for hard errors and are easy for computer technicians to diagnose. These types of errors will continue to occur until the source of the problem is found and corrected.

Soft, or transient, errors are more difficult to diagnose because they stem from a problem with the internal language of the data being read. If the error is not corrected before output, it results in a memory error message. Static shock, radioactivity, poor quality internal hardware or settings that are incorrect are common causes of soft errors. These errors are difficult to detect and are often thought of as just simple or random glitches.

A memory error can occur on any computer system. The error and the damage from the error can range from mild and correctable to damaging and irreversible. If the color of a computer screen changes without prompting, this can be the result of a mild internal memory error that probably has no effect on the user’s ability to continue using the computer. On the other hand, if a computer hard drive defragment is being run and an error states that files are corrupted, this is a much more extreme memory error that will prevent the computer from running as it should.

Many memory problems come from poor quality parts and poorly designed internal systems. It is not likely that a user is the cause of memory errors but rather an internal system issue is the problem. Purchasing systems that are quality made and come with preinstalled software to detect and correct memory errors is the best prevention. Memory detection or correction protocols can be purchased and installed to a computer from damage from memory errors.

source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-memory-error.htm

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Phishing refers to a scam analogous to fishing — hence the name — in which the scammer tries to obtain valuable information by luring or baiting a person with an authentic-looking but phony communication that gains credibility by imitating a well-known corporate brand such as that of a bank, credit card  company, etailer, social media  site, or payment site. The term originated in 1996. Spear phishing continues the analogy and denotes a specific style of phishing.

Phishing emails are sent out to a wide audience and generally give a dire warning, stating that something bad can only be avoided by the recipient confirming certain information. The information is usually personal and critical, like a Social Security number or your account number and password. A hyperlink  in the email takes the recipient to a website where the information is collected, with the result being that the recipient loses a bank account or is the victim of identity theft.

Spear phishing emails differ from phishing emails in several ways. First, they are sent to a carefully targeted audience, like employees of a certain organization, or members of a particular group. Second, the email appears to come from a colleague within the organization or group, and they are often constructed with more care than phishing emails, which may exhibit obvious signs of fakery. Third, the goal is not to simply get a name, password, or credit card information from an individual, but to infiltrate a company’s computer network.

One of the most notable spear phishing attacks, often referred to as “whaling” because of the caliber of the target audience, was a 2008 double whammy attack against around 20,000 senior corporate executives. Two thousand fell for the first attack but only 70 for the second. Both of the attacks masqueraded as an official subpoena to appear before a Federal grand jury, and clicking the link to what was supposed to be a fuller copy of the subpoena actually led to a site where an additional click installed software on their computer that allowed the theft of log-in credentials. The malware in the first case was caught by only eight of the top 35 anti-malware products, and the modified malware was only picked up by 11 of them in the second attack.

There are steps that people can take to avoid spear phishing scams. If one suspects a scam, one should call the person an email appears to be from. One should never click on any links in a suspicious email or open any attachments. It is also a good idea to call one’s IT department or Internet Service Provider (ISP) for guidance. Rather than just deleting suspicious email that may arrive at one’s work, one would do better to report it to the proper person in one’s company.

source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-spear-phishing.htm

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Anyplace that digitial data is stored may be subject to computer forensics techniques. Computer forensics applies to any digital medium, including how the FBI recovers evidence from computer, hard drive, cell phone, and other sources.

Remember how on last week’s CSI the investigators decrypted the suspect’s hard drive and caught him red-handed? That was computer forensics, even though it was a little different from reality. In reality, how the FBI recovers evidence from computer, hard drive, or other electronic data storage systems is both simpler and more complex. This article will explain basic computer forensics techniques and how they’re used by law enforcement agencies like the FBI.

How Does Computer Forensics Differ From Other Forensics?

Computer forensics is a branch of forensics, and is the use of investigative and analytical techniques to find digital evidence of criminal wrongdoing. Computer forensics differs from other forensics, such as DNA analysis or crime scene evidence gathering in that it’s focused on narrowing the amount of data available. At a crime scene, investigators are taught to collect every scrap of potential evidence. When dealing with a hard drive, computer forensics experts are taught techniques to filter the vast quantities of data the average hard drive holds.

How the FBI Recovers Evidence From Computer Hard Drive Storage

How the FBI recovers evidence from computer hard drive storage is usually simpler than one might think. The FBI keeps mum about these sorts of statistics, but agents have come forth to point out that most criminals aren’t bright enough to know how to hide their computer activities at all. Hard drives are most commonly unprotected, those with passwords often have easy-to-guess passwords, encryption usage by users is rare, and erased files and reformatted drives still contain the evidence, just hidden, yet easily recovered.

As a newer discipline in the area of evidence collection, procedures aren’t yet entirely standardized. However, computer forensics experts with the FBI’s Regional Computer Forensics Laboratories (RCFLs) use a 4-step process to: identify, collect, preserve, and analyze data from computer hard drives. Before anything is done, the hard drive is imaged, or copied in its entirety, at the sector level, and the copy is what is worked on. Then the FBI narrows down which data may represent evidence to recover and goes about recovering it, using data recovery tools where necessary. For instance, in nearly all types of criminal investigation, the FBI recommends analyzing Internet activity logs, but IRC chat logs are recommended only in the case of computer hacking evidence investigations.

The Need to Recover Evidence With Computer Forensics Continues to Grow

As hard drives grow bigger, each year so too does the amount of data analyzed by the FBI and its RCFLs. In 2008, RCFLs looked at over 1,700 terabytes of data including evidence on 17,500 hard drives. Law enforcement has several software tools available to make computer forensics easier, many of them open source, which helps in analyzing the ever-increasing quantities of data.

While computer forensics is a young science, it’s quickly proven its mettle, being pivotal in solving serial homicides, domestic terrorism cases, kidnapping, identity theft, and more. By using basic computer forensics techniques, which is how the FBI recovers evidence from computer hard drive and other electronic data storage systems, law enforcement adds another tool to its investigative arsenal.

source: http://www.brighthub.com/computing/hardware/articles/75930.aspx

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Confused about the terminology of broadband and the different types of Internet connections? Here we break it down to the basics, defining broadband, looking at the common types of connections, and then find that that the most popular provider may not be the best provider.

Most likely, unless you’re very young, you were introduced to the World Wide Web and the Internet through the use of a dial up connection. Here, the phone line is hooked up to the computer and you dial out using access numbers provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). This type of connection to the Internet is only capable of having a maximum of 56 kbps (kilobits per second) for its download speed, which is now considered very, very slow.

As technology has improved, people can now enjoy Internet connection at lightning-fast speeds. The old dial up connection method is becoming obsolete as people realize other different ways to have a faster Internet connection. This faster connection to the World Wide Web is known as broadband internet.

Some people would think of broadband specifically as the DSL connection or, maybe, cable Internet. Broadband is not limited to these two connections, but they are the most common ones. There are other types of Internet connections considered to be broadband.

Federal Communications Commission has the following definition for Broadband Internet:

“…broadband service [is the] data transmission speeds exceeding 200 kilobits per second (Kbps), or 200,000 bits per second, in at least one direction: downstream (from the Internet to the user’s computer) or upstream (from the user’s computer to the Internet)”

Therefore, any type of Internet connection that has a speed of at least about four times faster than dial up is considered broadband.

Types of Broadband Internet

As mentioned, there are different types of broadband Internet connections depending on the medium being used. All of which are capable of providing high-speed internet access.

DSL

DSL, or Digital Subscriber Line, is the most popular Internet connection type right now. Many people are aware of this type of broadband Internet since local phone companies offer this service to their customers. DSL is similar to dial up Internet in that they both use the telephone lines to transmit Internet data. However, DSL service is definitely much faster than dial up. DSL speeds range from 384kbps to 5Mbps or more.

Other than the fast Internet speed, DSL also does not interrupt the voice call functionality of the telephone lines, unlike with dial up where the line will be busy once connected to the Internet.

Before subscribing to DSL Internet connection, it would be best to ask if your location is near one of the facilities of the Internet service provider (ISP). The distance affects the speeds that you can possibly get from the servers of the ISP. The farther your place is from their facility, the less likely that you will enjoy their advertised speeds.

Cable Modem

Cable internet is the next popular type of connection to DSL. This one makes use of coaxial cables instead of telephone lines. Most of the cable TV providers now also offer cable internet since the lines being used are the same anyway.

The Internet speeds for a cable modem can range from 1.5Mbps to 20Mbps. Similar to DSL, these are their advertised speeds. The actual speed that customers will get will usually be less than what is indicated in their subscription because of several factors. One of which is the distance of the customer’s location from the nearest cable facility. Also, the number of people connecting to the internet at the same time affects the speed.

Fiber

This medium for sending and receiving Internet data is relatively new compared to DSL and Cable. Fiber optic cables use light to transmit data through very thin glass fibers. This Internet connection type is promising as it is capable of providing speeds about 10 times faster than DSL or Cable internet. However, fiber optic installations can be very expensive.

Satellite

Earth orbiting satellites are also now used to provide internet links. This, though, is not as popular as DSL and Cable since the downstream and upstream speeds can only be at 500kbps and 80kbps, respectively, on the average. This is mostly used in rural areas where DSL and Cable lines are not normally installed.

Broadband over Powerline (BPL)

Among all of the types mentioned here, BPL is a technology yet to be known by many. With BPL, Internet connection is distributed by power corporations. Customers can connect to the Internet using their existing electrical outlet. BPL is promising as it would eliminate the need to install new facilities that would provide the internet connection.

Conclusion

You might find it difficult at first to decide what type of Internet connection to subscribe to as they all seem to be offering the same thing. Make sure to do your homework first before signing any contract. You can get suggestions from your friends or neighbors who already have broadband internet connection at home. Don’t just go with the most popular provider. Reliability is one of the most important factors that you have to consider.

source: http://www.brighthub.com/computing/hardware/articles/12230.aspx

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Want to build your own computer? The process is easier than you think, and Bright Hub offers many articles which provide information on how to do it yourself. This guide will help you find the resources you to learn how to build a computer

How to Build a Computer

Building your own PC can be a fun and rewarding experience. It will also save you a lot of money, as buying your own PC components and putting them together costs far less than buying a pre-built PC from Dell, HP or some other computer vendor.

Of course, building a PC does come with a downside – you have to actually build a PC. This can be intimidating for those who have not previously dealt with computer hardware. The good news is that building a PC isn’t as difficult as you’d think. Even a beginner can build a new computer. It is a learning process, but the end result is a better, less expensive PC than what you can find in stores.

Installing the Power Supply

The power that comes from your wall socket can’t simply be connected directly to the components inside your computer. Each component has very specific power requirements, and it is the job of the power supply to make sure the components receive what they need. The power supply basically looks like a metal box. On one end there is a wall socket connection and on the other there is a huge number of wires hanging out.

Because the power supply is big and boxy – and usually is installed in a rather inaccessible part of the case – you’ll probably want to install your power supply first.

Installing the Motherboard

How to Build a Computer: MotherboardNext up we have the motherboard. The motherboard’s job is connect all the other devices in your computer and make sure that they play nice.You processor, RAM, hard drives and graphics card all need to send and receive huge amounts of data in order for your computer to work. The data is transferred along the motherboard, which then sends it to the correct device.

The motherboard is also a very large component. This, combined with the fact that all other components plug into it, means that installing it early is a very good idea. There is some flexibility in the timing of installing the motherboard, however. You may very well want to install the processor and expansion cards, as it might be easier to place them on your motherboard before it goes into your computer’s case.

Installing the CPU

Now you are well on your way to learning how to build a computer. The next component to worry about is your computer’s processor, or CPU. The CPU’s job is to handle all the heavy math which is required in a computer’s operation. It goes a long way towards determining the overall power of your computer, and is also usually one of the more expensive components.

Installing a CPU thankfully is one of less difficult tasks you’ll encounter while learning how to build a computer. The CPU fan which cools the processor, on the other hand, can be a bit finicky.

Installing Memory (RAM)

Next up we have the memory. Memory’s function is actually described quite well by its name. Memory is where your computer stores the short-term information it needs for everyday life. For example, let’s say you are editing a movie. Certain information about that movie and about the program you are using to edit it will be kept in memory. This prevents your computer from having to retrieve data from the hard drive, which is a slow processor and can make your computer feel sluggish.

Good news – memory is one of the easiest things to install when learning to build a computer. You just need to make sure that it is aligned correctly in the RAM slot and that you push down firmly enough to seat the RAM correctly in the slot.

Installing the Optical Drives and Hard Drives

Optical drives and hard drives are how your computer deals with information placed in long-term storage. You’ll need these when you learn how to build a computer in order to make your computer functional. Optical drives are basically just another name for CD-ROM, DVD-ROM and Blu Ray drives.

Hard drives are long-term storage inside the computer. This is where all of your programs and your operating system are installed. Your hard drive might be a mechanical disk or, if you’ve decided to be a bit spendy, it might be a solid state drive.

In either case, optical drives and hard drives connect to your motherboard is very similar ways.

Installing Graphics Cards and Expansion Cards

One of the last steps you need to take when learning how to build a computer is the installation of your graphics card and other expansion cards. Most motherboards have some sort of integrated graphics and a lot of device functionality, but for real power you need a graphics card and expansion cards.

Installing these cards isn’t much different from installing memory. You need to line the card up with the appropriate slot and press down firmly until secure.There are many different kinds of slots, however, so you need to make sure that you know which slot a card needs to go into.

Installing Fans

Last, but not least, we need to worry about fans. This is not the most glamours part of learning how to build a computer, but it is important, because a computer without proper cooling won’t be long for this world.

Installing fans isn’t too difficult. The worst part is figuring out how to provide power to them without turning your case into a mess of wires.

source: http://www.brighthub.com/computing/hardware/articles/74887.aspx

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Are you looking to purchase a computer with an Intel processor? If so, you need to make sure you understand Intel processor speeds before opening up your wallet. This brief guide will help you figure out how what processor is best for you.

Intel CPU Processor Speeds

One of the most important components of any computer is the processor. The processor is responsible for most of the heavy lifting that your computer must do to run programs – only graphics rendering is off-loaded to the GPU. It is important that you understand Intel CPU processor speeds when you are thinking about purchasing any computer.

Unfortunately, the complexity of computer processors make its hard to express Intel CPU processor speeds in a simple, one-size-fits-all manner. Some processors are faster than others at one task, but perhaps slower than another. This guide will try and help you understand processor speeds so that you can make an informed processor buying decision.

Clock Speeds

The clock speed of a processor has traditionally been an important part of judging the speed of a Intel processor. The clock speed is an expression of the number of cycles the processor can complete per second. Higher numbers are always better.

Judging Intel CPU processor speed has become more complex recently because of a feature called Turbo Boost. Turbo Boost is found on Core i5 and i7 processors in both laptops and desktops. Turbo Boost dynamically increases clock speeds based on the thermal headroom of a processor. The minimum clock speed is still the clock speed advertised, but the processor may often times increase its clock speed by 500Mhz or more. A full list of these processors, and their maximum turbo boost speeds, can be found on Intel’s website.

The Core of the Matter

Intel CPU Processor SpeedWhen a clock speed number is quoted for a computer it applies to all cores on the processor. A core is an individual processing unit on the CPU. Each core can process data on its own. In a way, having a processor with two cores is like having a computer with two processors, although this is a generalization.

Adding cores to a processor does not result in a linear performance increase of Intel CPU processor speed. For example, let’s say you have a single-core 2Ghz processor and a dual-core 2Ghz processor. The dual-core processor does not function like a 4Ghz single-core processor.

However, the extra core does mean it is possible to process two threads of data at once. This makes it easier for the processor to handle multi-tasking, and there are some programs, like video editing software, that dramatically benefit from the addition of cores.

Dual cores are the industry standard today. Single-core processors are only found in some low-power laptops. Quad core processors are becoming more common, but aren’t necessary for the average user. You only need a quad-core if you do 3D rendering or video editing.

Laptop Processors

If you are buying a desktop computer you can safely purchase a processor with a fast speed and four cores. Buying more than you need will obviously cost you more, but it otherwise has no negative consequences.

That isn’t true with laptops. The general rule with laptops is that faster processors with more cores require more energy. When comparing Intel CPU processor speeds in laptops, consider what you actually need. A quad-core may be attractive, but jumping from a Core i5 to a Core i7 will reduce battery life by around 20% on most laptops.

Also keep Turbo Boost in mind. Some Intel laptop processors have very low stated clock speeds but very aggressive Turbo Boost settings. Intel calls these “ultra-low voltage” processors. These are good processors for ultra-portable laptops.

Conclusion

Intel CPU processor speed is an important concept to understand before buying a new computer. I hope this guide has clarified a few issues for you.

source: http://www.brighthub.com/computing/hardware/articles/75719.aspx

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